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Excavation sites suggest that humans have existed in Peru since about 9,000 BC. The earliest civilization was that of the
Norte Chico who established themselves along the western coast between 3,000 and 1,800 BCE. This civilization was followed
by the Chavin, and then the Paracas, Mochica, Nazca, Wari, and Chimú. The Incan’s then emerged in the 15th century
as a powerful empire that became the largest in the region in pre-Columbian times. These societies were all based on agriculture,
animal husbandry, and fishing. They also had no concept of money or a market, so all food and goods were shared and traded
but not for gains.
The 16th century saw the arrival of the Spanish conquistadores. In 1532, a group of conquistadores
led by Francisco Pizarro captured the Incan emperor Atahualpa. Pizarro held the Emperor for ransom and although he received
three rooms full of gold and silver, he executed the Emperor. Pizarro subsequently conquered the Incan Empire and imposed
Spanish rule. A decade later, the Spanish established the Viceroyalty for Peru and its other colonies in South America. Viceroy
Francisco de Toledo reorganized the country to make silver mining its primary economic activity. The silver bullion provided
money to the Spanish crown and created complex trade routes throughout the world that reached even as far as the Philippines.
By the 18th century, the silver production had dropped and the lack of work diversification strained the country and the Viceroyalty’s
income. The Spanish crown then enacted the Bourbon Reforms, which was a series of taxes on the South American colonies. This
act prompted some rebellions, but all were defeated.
While the rest of South America was warring for independence
in the 19th century, Peru remained loyal to the Spanish monarchy. It was the actions of military leaders José de San
Martín and Simón Bolívar that eventually won Peru’s independence through military action. The early years
of Peru’s independence were unstable as military factions tried to seize control of the republic. Stability was gained
under the presidency of Ramón Castillo because of increased revenues due to guano export. By the 1870’s the resource
was depleted and the country fell into debt and then further in-fighting.
In 1883, Peru saw defeat in the War
of the Pacific against Chile. In this defeat, Peru lost the provinces of Arica and Tarapacá. Internal struggles continued
after the war under the Civilest Party. Stability was gained under the authoritarian regime of Augusto B. Leguía but
that was short lived. The Great Depression brought down Leguía and brought back political unrest and the caused the formation
of the American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (ARPA). The conflicts between ARPA, the Coalition of the Elite, and the military
came to define Peruvian politics for the next thirty years.
In 1968, the military staged a coup and overthrew
President Fernando Belaunde. However, the new regime failed to spark development through its set of radical reforms. In 1975,
General Francisco Morales Bermúdez forcefully removed the regime and reinstated democracy. Through the 1980’s,
Peru was racked with a growing debt, a rise in drug trafficking, and the constant attacks of Maoist Shining Path guerrillas.
It wasn’t until the presidency of Alberto Fujimori in the 1990’s that Peru was able to start recovering.
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